AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION

We aim to look at the following:

• the status of agriculture in our nation;

• the nature of agricultural education and examination in the prevailing socio-economic climate;

• the environment required for agricultural education to be relevant;

• the presentation of agricultural education in a way that will equip students for fruitful living;

• inclusive agricultural education and examination; and

• our need for agriculture.

DEFINITION AND SCOPE

Agricultural education is a multi-faceted subject by all accounts. It is one of those subjects that could be taught and examined at four distinct levels:

General education agriculture - which informs the general public about food and agriculture;

Tertiary agriculture – which involves training of people to teach, conduct research and produce information to advance the field of agriculture and food science in other ways;

Secondary School agriculture – this trains people for jobs in such areas as production, marketing and conservation;

Primary School agriculture – which deals with such subjects as how plants and animals grow and how soil is farmed and conserved.

Depending on the level or the aspect of agricultural education, we could be dealing with one or more of the following areas:
Animal Husbandry, Crop Husbandry and Horticulture, Fisheries, Foods and Nutrition, General Agriculture and Agricultural Science.

Education is widely recognised as a key element in the progress of any society. However, it is also increasingly recognised that this education, as well as being accessible, must be relevant. When we talk of "relevance" this not only refers to the needs of the country in the employment opportunities that may be available at the end of a season of education, but also the fact that those receiving the education must see it as relevant to their lives. This is particularly so if the subject is directly associated with future livelihood.

AGRICULTURE AND THE GAMBIA

According to our Vision 2020 document "agriculture is the backbone of the economy, engaging 70 per cent of the labour force, of which two thirds are women. This sector’s contribution to the GDP (gross domestic product) stands at about 20 per cent".

If agriculture is the back bone of the economy, is it given its due place in our education system? If not, why not? I am not here to act as judge and jury for any system that has evolved and is implemented by skilled and dedicated educators. However, what I should like to do is throw out a few questions and challenges that could contribute to the further development of an area of education which I, and others, consider to be crucial to our future, when we have as our aim the development of sustainable activities that will promote the wellbeing of the people of The Gambia.

Farming has been a way of life in the area that is now The Gambia ever since the distant past, before national boundaries were established in the way we know them today. Pastoralists have grazed their flocks and herds over our lands for centuries.

With a more settled way of life, subsistence agriculture has fed people over the generations. During the last century, and particularly since independence, agriculture has become more formalised, and there has been a major drive to enhance traditional methods and introduce new innovations.

However, if we were to ask our young people if they looked forward to a career in agriculture, I believe there would be only a minority with aspirations in that direction. Those heading in that direction are most likely to be heading towards working as extension agents for either government or non-governmental organisations (NGOs), or other occupations linked indirectly to the land or livestock. Few are heading towards hands on farming.

In a country where our major natural resources are the land and the water (that is, the river and the sea), is there not some way in which the use of these resources can be optimised, with exciting employment opportunities for coming generations? Unfortunately, farming can be seen as something that those who are less able academically end up doing.

It can be an issue of "attitude" that causes young people with an education to seek employment in the urban areas. After all, this is where the kudos is. However, does it have to be like this? Attitudes are formed from an early age. The school years are vital for developing healthy attitudes; and a time when young people find direction towards a fulfilling and productive future – both for them as individuals and also for the nation as a whole. However, if attitudes are to change, this has to be justified by the right socio-economic climate and sound opportunities in agriculture.

CHALLENGES IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION FOR THE GAMBIA TODAY

Agricultural education sits quite comfortably within the realms of both skills training and academia.

Agriculture of today continues to be an intensely practical subject, as in the past; but it also requires an ability to understand the science behind crop and animal production, skills in business management, and understanding of markets and where a new product may succeed. In a manner of speaking, this is the way it has always been, and we must never underestimate the skills of our ancestors who made a living from the land.

However, in today’s world we face a different socio-economic climate both nationally and internationally, and this is, no doubt, generally reflected in the syllabuses of today. Although we recognise that we live in a changing world, and the education of our young people must keep abreast of this, we must be careful not to "throw the baby out with the bathwater".

With regard to agriculture, although there is plenty of scope for new ideas and technology, we should not lose the vast pool of local knowledge that has been built up over the years through the experience of our forebears.

For example, in an age when we are increasingly conscious of the harm that can be caused to the environment by over-use of agro-chemicals (a fact learned through experience in nations of the north), we are fortunate that we have a tradition of disease and pest control by using naturally occurring materials.

There is a place for new technology, but also a sound argument for retaining some traditional methods. Does the agricultural science syllabus and examination reflect this?

In establishing an agricultural enterprise, there are two broad purposes:

• provision of food; and

• income generation.

If income is to be generated, there must be a sound understanding of markets – both local and international. There has long been a debate on how to develop a local market for the disposal of locally grown food.

How can this matter be fully integrated into the curriculum, whereby the students feel a part of the discussion? Does the course include practical experience of marketing, planning sowing dates and harvesting to catch the market at the best time? How much is studied on the international markets? How does The Gambia fair in the cut and thrust of the world market? We have some concessional access to markets through mechanisms such as the Cotonou Agreement, but we are also frequently obliged reciprocally to accept goods from the north.

How can we compete? Nations with well developed agricultural sectors did this in bygone times under systems of price support and protected markets. In our present climate of free market, how does a nation such as The Gambia compete? Some commentators would say this is nigh on impossible.

If this is so, how do we manage the sale of our produce to secure a good livelihood for our farmers? There must be answers to these questions – otherwise, why agriculture as an occupation? Let us involve our young people in wrestling with these issues.

The use of agriculture for food production is an important part of promoting the health of our nation. A nutritious diet is essential for all people. This does, unfortunately depend on how well off a family may be – the better off can afford more meat and fish, for example. However, from early school days children can learn about the nutrient value of different crops. This life skill will remain with them, and always be of value.

There are many opportunities in the world of today. However, it requires innovation and the mind of an entrepreneur to see these opportunities and optimise the possibilities. What alternative enterprises may there be in agriculture that can generate income? How can by-products be put back into the production cycle? The generation of energy from methane is a known scientific example in chemistry. How can this way of thinking be developed in our young people? What is more, how can it be examined? We lay this challenge before WAEC. What we are trying to say in all this is that, as well as imparting knowledge that can be assessed, education should be about preparing people for a fulfilling and productive life.

HOW CAN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION BE OWNED AS RELEVANT

Agricultural education can be seen as an exciting and viable option for study only under certain conditions. These would ensure a socio-economic environment that is conducive to the development of agriculture as a sector that will enrich those who undertake it as an occupation, and also the people of The Gambia at large who reap the benefits in the form of nutritious food, employment and a stronger economy.

Inducements to take up agriculture as a career would include:

• access to technology for improved systems and yields. However, experience in countries of the north showed that improved technology happened as a response to farmers being assured good prices for their produce. Therefore, another essential pre-requisite is:

• access to markets where there will be decent profit margins. On the Anglican Mission Farms on the North Bank Region, we were once faced with the rather strange situation that it was impossible to produce eggs from our local enterprise cheaper than those coming from Europe. We had the benefit of a highly skilled and qualified Farm Manager, who was even able to formulate his own feed mix. However, we could not compete. I believe this is not a rare experience. Another linked pre-requisite would therefore be:

∑ commitment by national authorities and development partners to see how markets can be regulated to allow our farmers to have a market for their produce with prices that allow for a reasonable profit. The oppression of poorer countries by the international economic system is a sin and needs to be addressed. We are greatly encouraged by the high status our President has given agriculture in this nation, and the encouragement he has given to people to return to the land.

With a favourable environment, the challenge now lies with the educators and examiners as to how best to present agricultural education to the students in order to equip them for fruitful occupation.

CAN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION BE INSPIRATIONAL?

Agricultural education is a classic example of an area of education that, if it is to produce good results, must be presented within the concept of experiential learning. John Dewey has been called "the father of experiential learning" (Roberts 2006).

Dewey is quoted as saying "… amid all uncertainties there is one permanent frame of reference: namely, the organic connection between education and personal experience" (Dewey 1938). We get the same message from a common saying in The Gambia – "seeing is believing". It seems that we need to see and feel the effect of something in order to decide whether it would be good or bad for us.

In the case of agricultural education, it is important for students to see the purpose of this education. This is, of course, not just to impart knowledge and basic facts. It is also to present the subject in such as way that it can be seen as a worthwhile occupation. Any person undertaking this occupation would be promoting food production and income generation for family and nation.

The School Farm and Garden Project of the Department of State for Education attempts to show these purposes for farming and gardening. The children eat some of the produce in lunches, and income generated is used for the benefit of the school. So they should feel the benefit of their labours.

Some garden teachers show much initiative, and are able to present the garden as a place for exploration and discovery. For example, the garden bed can be replicated in the classroom to see the difference certain treatments and methods can have.

For children to come to see the garden as some sort of laboratory can give it more prestige, and imply – rightly – that a scientific mind is needed to succeed in this activity. The estimation of ideal sowing dates, choice of crops, and so on, are all part of the planning process whereby the market can be caught at the most profitable time when the produce is most in demand. Even in urban areas it is possible to have a school garden. It is amazing how even vertical surfaces can be used as areas of productivity.

Some students may wish to work more in the area of nutrition and food technology. An understanding of the food value of different products is essential. Additionally the processing of produce is a key sector. We have times when there is a glut of certain produce, and other times when the scarcity can raise prices.

The logical answer is the preservation and processing of produce. There are many effective methods that do not have to be very expensive – such as drying and bottling. We are also challenged as a nation to consider central processing facilities, such as canning or bottling plants. Would it not be wonderful to experience locally produced mango juice when it is not the mango season?

Agriculture is actually an occupation that can be replicated to some extent whilst it is being taught. The procedures can be undertaken in the school or college garden and farm. Project work can comprise exercises in planning, establishing enterprises, reviewing markets and other such activities. The project work can be done in groups, which also prepares the student for a business situation where it is necessary to work and cooperate with colleagues. The interaction would be very good preparation for those going into partnership with others.

When we hold personal experience to be an effective educator, this may not only relate to formal education in school or college. It could also relate to life experience. If a youngster has grown up being involved in the family farm, this is sure to influence how he views agriculture as a potential career for himself. If he witnesses a struggle, with lack of access to good markets, it is likely he will not be encouraged.

However, if this experience (comprising both positive and negative aspects) is included in class and group work, it could provide an ideal basis for discussion. The good (such as sound traditional practises and local knowledge that favour the land) can be highlighted; and the difficult areas used in trouble-shooting problem solving exercises. Such education must be dynamic, with maximum involvement of the students.

Inspiration in any field can only come from a fundamentally positive vision. Components of a positive vision for agriculture would include the following:

• advanced and appropriate technology;

• support from both government and non-government agencies (even to the extent of providing start-up grants or loans for farming businesses);

• access to both good local markets and the international market, where there will be decent profits; and

• political will to ensure a viable agriculture sector.

These components are presently at various stages of development.

Throughout this lecture it has become quite evident that we cannot separate the system of agricultural education in our schools (and at college level) from the working and socio-economic environment at large. This is where the school and college leavers will use their education, and it must be a part of that education if they are to be effectively prepared.

The educator who presents agricultural education faces a great challenge in all this; and the challenge subsequently extends to the examiner. The system and format of assessment will mean much when embodied as a qualification; and this is what prospective employers will look for.

The form of assessment will be a part of the preparation for those aiming to work in practical agriculture. As well as assessing the acquisition of knowledge, the replication of the working environment could no doubt be very useful. Such an approach could include projects and case studies, as well as an element of practical implementation.

We have thus far looked at the use of agriculture purely for the production of food or income. However, this is not quite the whole story.

INCLUSIVE AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, AND THE THERAPEUTIC USE OF AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE

Horticulture (and agriculture) is increasingly recognised as having therapeutic qualities. We will discuss this in greater depth shortly.

In a similar connection, we must consider an inclusive approach to the implementation of agricultural education at primary, secondary and tertiary levels, where we will certainly meet some students who are living with physical disability. They could be visually impaired, or maybe have restricted mobility in the use of a wheelchair.

We are challenged in the way we present this education in order that all may fully participate. There is a further challenge in the way the subject is examined, and we lay this before WAEC for consideration. There are certain basic adjustments that can be made, such as using raised garden beds (probably on a stand) to allow this to be accessible to someone in a wheelchair.

Tools can be adapted to make them easier to hold, and so on. When one sense - such as sight – is impaired, the other senses can replace this to a large extent. How can we formulate the teaching / learning of agriculture, and its examination, using other senses? It is very important that no one should be excluded from this subject because of an extra challenge in physical status.

What we are advocating is that, not only should people who are physically challenged be fully involved in agricultural education and subsequent employment, but that agriculture and horticulture should be recognised as an essential part of our way of living to ensure the health of our nation. In this connection, I pose the question:

ARE WE CREATED TO WORK WITH THE LAND AND ITS PRODUCE?

The benefit of agriculture and horticulture – and working with the land – is being seen as something more than occupational. We have already established the fact that these are obvious activities in a country where one of our main resources is the land. This is a nation where the people have historically worked with the land – it is in our blood. It is a means of providing nutritious food and income for people locally. It is a means of earning foreign exchange. This fact buttresses the theory that, as people, we need to work with the land.

In his book "Wild Hunger" Bruce Wilshire talks of our kinship with the land – or rather, our ‘ecstatic’ kinship. He says that he believes the reason for so many addictions in our day and age is due to the ways we have developed to fill the void that has been left, as we have moved away from a close existence with the land. Of course, this is going to be more prevalent in northern nations, but we are in danger of being in that position too in the not too distant future. Hear a passage from this book.

"Human life was formed through millions of years in which our human and prehuman ancestors survived only by coping with wild Nature. By the Paleolithic era, humans made sense of wilderness in story, art, religion, and primal technology. Even when terrified at times, they probably did not feel emotionally empty. I strongly suspect that on one level we still hunger for
primal excitement, but the hunger is partially suppressed and confused by the overlaying of later agriculture, industrial and
now electronic life.

"These days humankind’s relationship to wilderness is strained and ambiguous. I think that addictions stem from breaking the participatory bond our species has had with regenerative source, with wild Nature over the ages – kinship with plants and animals, with rocks, trees, and horizons. ……. In such moments we are "out of ourselves," ecstatic, spontaneous, full of the swelling presences of things.

Addictions try to fill the emptiness left by the loss of ecstatic kinship. They are substitute gratifications that cannot last for long – slavishly repeated attempts to keep the emptiness at bay. Finally they drain the body of its regenerative powers." (Wilshire, 1998)

I am not saying that alienation from the land is the only cause of addictions, or that every person has to farm to avoid such hazards. However, as a nation, we ignore such warnings at our peril. So called ‘development’ can be at a cost if we move away from some of the fundamentals for which we were created. Both Muslim and Christian faiths encourage us to care for our environment – as good stewards of God’s creation.

If we follow Wilshire’s argument that a loss of kinship with the land can contribute to society’s increased tendency to addictions, there is a logical subsequence to this that says healing can be found by a return to the land.

A number of programmes follow this line in helping people battle with addiction. The well known UK TV gardner, Monty Don, conducted a project whereby young addicts came to work in a garden in an attempt to tackle their addiction.

The Pilsdon Community, UK, welcomes people facing issues of addiction (or mental health) to come and live in community and work with the land in their farm and garden. All this can break the cycle of addiction, give a rhythm to life through the cycle of seasons and life and death, and bring people closer to their early roots. The results can be remarkable.

An African advocate for remaining close to the land and striving for sustainable development is to be found in the person of Professor Wangari Maathai – Nobel Peace Prize laureate.

She spearheads the Green Belt Movement in Kenya. She says, "the women of the Green Belt Movement have learned about the causes and the symptoms of environmental degradation. They have begun to appreciate that they, rather than their government, ought to be custodians of the environment" (Maathai 1994)

In other words, they are fully accepting their responsibility as stewards of creation.

In her autobiography, Maathai grieves the loss of kinship with the environment that came with alienation and inappropriate uses of land.

She talks of the arrival of "traders and administrators who introduced new methods of exploiting our rich natural resources: logging, clear-cutting
native forests, establishing plantations of imported trees, hunting wildlife, and undertaking expansive commercial agriculture. Hallowed landscapes lost their sacredness; local people became insensitive to the destruction, accepting it as
a sign of progress." (Maathai 2006)

Identification with the land, and appropriate systems of land use, are key to sustainability and a healthy relationship with the environment. This is a relationship of mutual reward, whereby both the people and the environment benefit.

How can this feeling of kinship with the land and respect for the environment be re-awakened in our people? From the arguments presented, by so doing, it can lead to increased health and peace in the people, and also more sustainable living.

Of course, problems of environmental degradation and inappropriate systems can also have some root in poverty, where people have little choice. However, we have to start somewhere. How can these vital issues be included in the syllabus for agriculture? It would seem to be critical to address these issues at school level if positive attitudes are to form, and young people start to participate in seeking solutions from an early age.

Horticulture (and agriculture) has also been found to have therapeutic value for those living with physical or mental disabilities. In the UK, Thrive – a national charity founded in 1978 makes use of gardening to change the lives of disabled people. They say,

"Gardening is a wonderfully flexible medium through which an individual can accomplish many things.

Some may be immediately apparent, such as rebuilding strength after an accident or an illness, or providing a purposeful activity which helps people to cope with a difficult period in their life. Some may be less obvious such as helping to improve literacy through a simple task such as labelling a plant or reading a seed packet …." (Thrive 2008)

I should like to challenge WAEC and educationists present to consider including aspects of this approach in the syllabus for agricultural education. This presents an alternative occupation for school leavers, and also presents possibilities for those with learning disabilities or facing issues of mental or physical disability.

CONCLUSION

In this paper we have attempted to present the case for agriculture – and thus the case for agricultural education. We are a nation that has historically been one of farming and agricultural productivity. However, we now need to reflect upon this in today’s socio-economic climate.

We have presented challenges to WAEC, and to the educators of our nation. I am pleased and proud to claim a place in this latter group. As Head of Mission for the Anglican Church in The Gambia we have a number of schools at all levels. We have also had a vocational training centre in Farafenni for quite a few years.

This establishment is now to become an Agricultural Secondary School. We have a vision to develop this to college level in the future. So, I hope I can claim to be one who will "walk the talk" and not just talk!! I think also, in making such a material commitment to agricultural education, we can claim literally to be putting our money where our mouth is!

We have aimed in this lecture to state the importance of agriculture to our nation – in terms of food production, income generation, and in promoting the health of our nation. We have shown how agriculture is not just a means of productivity, but a way to maintain our ancient roots of connectedness to the land. This latter, it is argued, satisfies a deep hunger in humanity to live as they were created - to be in connection with their natural environment.

We have outlined the challenges faced in agriculture, and thus also in agricultural education. These include: access to effective and appropriate technology; access to markets, both local and international, that will provide good profits; the ability to use the environment in which agriculture is undertaken, through good planning, the ability to spot a gap and fill it with an innovative enterprise, the development of the mind of an entrepreneur who can establish an enterprise to the benefit of both marketer and purchaser, and so on. All this can only survive if brought together under an umbrella of "sustainability".

We can learn much from traditional systems that lasted for many generations; but with present day adaptations to cater for today’s demands.

We have called on government and partners to support the further development of agriculture and its subsidiaries. We have recognised the need for political will to create the right environment for agriculture to flourish.

We have challenged WAEC, and educators, to recognise and reflect, in both syllabus and assessment, the nature of agricultural operations needed in this country and indeed in our sub-region. We appreciate that some of this is already on the agenda, but we can go further.

We have challenged the education administrators in the way that agriculture and horticulture is presented. It is not a subject for those who are less able academically, but also for the most able. There can be different levels of education, but agriculture is worthy of prestige. It can be a means to a fulfilling life. However, the education must be presented in such a way that it is relevant to the lives of those who learn. It is far more than the acquisition of facts.

We have further brought to the fore the people in our society who can be marginalised. Those already facing struggles in life with disability should be able fully to benefit from a good agricultural education, and subsequently have full employment in the sector. Those living with physical or mental disability can benefit therapeutically from involvement in horticultural activities.

We have endeavoured to present a number of suggestions for how agricultural education can be enhanced. We have also striven to show the importance of agriculture, horticulture and the connection with the land to our survival and progress. The two are mutually inclusive.

I thank you all.

The new Guinea Conakary ambassador accredited to The Gambia and the new Canadian High Commissioner, yesterday presented their letters of credence to President Alhaji Dr Yahya Jammeh at his office at State House, Banjul.

Madam Hadja Koumba Diakite of Guinea Conakary and Mr Jean Pierre Bolduc of Canada where accompanied to State House by Crispin Grey-Johnson, secretary of state for Foreign Affairs.

Speaking to the newsmen soon after presenting her letter to the Gambian leader, Madam Hadja Koumba Diakite, expressed delight at the Gambian leader for accepting her credence.

According to her, President Jammeh has equally instructed her as how President Lassana Conteh of Guinea instructed her, which is to put into action the areas of bilateral cooperation between the two countries.

"President Jammeh has also instructed me and The Gambia Foreign Ministry to work hand-in-hand to identify the active sectors of the economy in which we can collaborate, such as agriculture, trade, and tourism. This will be a wonderful link between The Gambia and Guinea, which all geared towards the well being of the two states," she concluded.

For his part, Mr Jean Pierre Bolduc, High Commissioner of Canada, said he equally received a warm welcome from President Jammeh to come back to The Gambia, help address areas, where Canada has more expertise.

He added that during their discussions, both the president and himself recalled the close relationship between Canada and The Gambia over the years, including various areas of mutual interest for the two nations.

"Some of these areas have been in existence for a long time and some are in recently. We also reflected on what The Gambia has been doing. For instance, there are areas of possible investment like tourism, mineral and petroleum sectors, in which Canada has a lot of expertise and capabilities and certainly this is something that we will bring back from Canada in terms of openness and possibilities.We also discussed the needs for skills training and capabilities of Canada in that field. Already, there has been some linkages and President Jammeh alerted me on them," he said.

In the area of investment, High Commsioner Bolduc said there are companies that have shown interest to invest in The Gambia, assuring that while in The Gambia, he will make contacts back in Canada on the possibilities of investment by the Canadian private sector.

Bintang is a riverside settlement located 100 km from Banjul . It has a rich pre-colonial history as one of the first European settlements along the River Gambia. It was a watering hole for European vessels plying the river, a trade centre for slaves and goods, a multi ethnic town here various cultures mixed and interacted.

“In former times traders vessels going up river would often stop there, presumably to purchase supplies such as rice’, wrote David Gamble in the 1940s. Very much earlier the French priest La Courbe who visited the town in 1685 made the following observations: ‘Bintang appeared from a distance to be rather a large town; it is located on the slope of a hill, with many trees and several Portuguese style houses, looked like churches, but was only made of thatch, except for those of the Portuguese which were built of earth and covered with palm fronds as large as table cloths’. From his description, it is assumed that the town was multi ethnic with a sizable European (Portuguese) population, who could have been traders wealthy enough to own big houses.

‘The river Vintang, whose mouth is about a mile over…. Is navigable a great many leagues. Above three leagues from the mouth is the town of Vintang situated in Fonia and the British Royal Company have a factor (trade agent) chiefly, for elephant tusks, wax, honey etc’, wrote Richard Jobson, a British explorer in 1665. He underlines the commercial import of Bintang as a hub for trade in the South bank.

In 1682 another explorer Loemos Coelho, wrote ‘ Bintang was the best village on the river, having much trade in hides, as well as wax, ivory and slaves’. He reveals the sadder aspect of Bintang’s glory, its status as a major slave port in the South bank. Slaves captured in the Foni and parts of the Kombos embarked from Bintang to James Island , two hours away.

The town by virtue of its European and African mix, had various religions such as Islam, Christianity and Jews.

A recent field visit to -Bintang was able to reveal only a few traces of its glorious past, which even the village elders do not seem to remember well. Ahaji Siaka Gassama, 93, was our informant on the more recent history of Bintang:

‘Bintang is a very old settlement. The area was a Bagnun   village which was later given to the Mandinkas to use. It has always been a scholars’ town. Ballo Minteh was one of such scholars versed in Islam who was asked to protect the new settlement from devils which were said to live near the area. Jammeh Sisay was one of the early settlers also, and the first Alkalo was called Masera. There used to be the European quarter at the river front which had the shops and residences. The Portuguese and the Mullatos lived there. They intermarried with the local Mandinka. Jola and Bagnun. Rice was the major crop grown, but trade in wax, ivory,   rubber was also important.

During the days of slavery, Bintang suffered numerous attacks by slave raiders like Bunama Njai, who was defeated at Bintang during one of his slave sorties.

Bintang also is the home of Masaneh Ceesay, the famed Mandingo Romeo who died on the night of his wedding. He was a trade agent for Portuguese merchant in Bintang.’

Photos by: Dodou Bojang